Formal introduction. The storyteller asks the attention of the children as public (and answer).

Beginning of the long introduction included in the ritual for appeasing the ancestors as well as eventual evil influences (see later). It expresses the connection between storytelling and the sacred knowledge from the past derived from the ancestors. The educational function of storytelling is stressed by the recurring address to the children as ‘not knowing’ (the question whether they know how to tell a story; their qualification as being ‘immature’ and ‘not knowing respect’). The concept that ‘children of today do not know respect’ is generally used when adults teach children.

Adults drink while performing the ritual, but they have the duty to warn children against drinking.

The storyteller addresses the ancestors (see the vocative form) and starts the libation prayer. By the expression “ao ɖe” (No at all) he implicitly refuses all forms of evil and states that it is his duty to carry out the libation. He avows the direct link between the knowledge from the past personified by the ancestors and the story that he is delivering to the children.

Libation’s offer and repetition of the concept of the educational function of the story and of the link it establishes between past, present and future.

The ritual function of drinking is affirmed as well as the libation’s prophylactic function, so that the ancestors rest in peace and, in a cover form (‘people far away’), the evil dead too.

Concluding the ritual, the storyteller and another senior man (the School Headmaster) share drank.

The storyteller asks the children’s attention again by using the introductory formula “listen to the story, let the story come”.

At this point, the interviewer asks the children a song.

The children’s song focuses on foods (sweet porridge and okro soup) that children love, and on the danger represented by adults who will eat it (‘people from Dahomey’, i.e. present-day Benin, and adults who come back at four o’clock).

The storyteller takes up the narration after the children’s song and dance. The formal introduction is repeated, but this time he shifts rapidly to the main theme of the story: ‘Why crabs do not have heads.’

Repetition of the educational function of the narrative.

Standard formula that establishes and anticipates the characters that the public can expect as actors in the story (aquatic animals, domestic animals).

The description of the story that ‘moves for long and lands on…’ reinforces the idea that storytelling delivers ancestors’ knowledge from the past, as it was already expressed in the introduction and libation prayer.

The storyteller asks again the attention of the children and starts to deliver his story.

The story starts in an undetermined past and relates of a world different from the present one because of a general lack: all animals lack heads. They question their existence without head.

Crab (Grandfather crab) offers a solution to the initial lack. He learns carpentry and makes heads for the animals.

He is characterized by knowledge and skill, and by his position as elder. Divine creation is not explicitly mentioned, although the action of carving animals’ heads (it is not said with what material) belongs to the sphere of ‘creation’. The trustworthy relationship between Grandfather crab – with knowledgeable craft – and Crab (Young crab) is established: Young crab respects Grandfather and is entrusted with the selling of the heads. Their hierarchical relation is expressed by their actantial roles as respectively Power (Grandfather crab) and Receiver (Young crab). The concept of ‘respect’ is not explicit, but the narrative unfolds it as obedience and understanding.

The narration is interspersed with songs thanks to the interaction with the public. A well-known formula allows the audience to intervene by taking witness of the events narrated (“I was present”) and shifting in time from the past (“on that day”) to the present (“let it come for us to hear”).

Interlude with song’s refrain.

The storyteller assigns a character to the child who started to sing and makes the story shift back in time again (“on that day”). A storyteller can assign the audience righteous or bad characters, what implies a form of control on the audience’s role and position. In this case, the Grandfather’s positive role is assigned (rewarding).

The task is assigned and carried out. The heads’ selling takes place and the appointed role of Young Crab is confirmed.

The narrative presents a second lack, expressed in the specific form of the initial one: Young crab lacks his head.

Warning of Grandfather crab and anticipation of the test that Young crab has to go through.

Young crab agrees.

Repetition and expansion on the previous actions.

The storyteller mentions a number of fishes known to the children, and then resumes the narrative line.

Disclosure of the test. At this point, different resolutions of the test are still possible (“Young crab keeps a head for himself”: is he acting correctly? does he understand Grandfather crab correctly?).

Repetition and expansion with anticipation of risk (“grandfather had grown very old”).

The storytelling asks for attention.

Confirmation of test and correct handling of Young crab: he understood well, he had to take a head for himself. Grandfather crab manifests his consideration for Young crab by carving and choosing for him a ‘pretty’ head. Young crab has passed the test.

Without mentioning the concept ‘respect’, the storyteller gives a clear example of the ‘right’ behaviour elders expect from children.

Suspense (does the story end at this point? How it comes that crab has no head?).

The test is resumed in the form of the moral dilemma: Young crab’s bosom friend lacks his head too.

The narration is interspersed with another child’s intervention.

(see before)

The storyteller assigns the child the skilful friend’s role (rewarding).

Repetition and expansion on the test. Young crab could not ‘say no’ to his bosom friend and sells his own head.

At this point, the test could still open up to different resolutions (“is he acting correctly? will he get another head?”), but the question at the beginning of the story (“why crabs have no head”) warns the audience as to what follows.

The risk ventilated before becomes now definite: Grandfather died and there are no more heads. The storyteller does not explain or makes the point explicit, but the children’s answer “Oh! Oh! Oh!” express the understanding of the situation. Didactic form of instruction: the children have to draw the conclusion.

Aetiological ending: the present world (headless crabs) has its foundation in the past (re)-created in the story.

The moral dilemma is disclosed and elucidated. Moral teachings: you have to learn to draw a line between kindness (Grandfather crab) and over-kindness (Young crab); friendship should not prevent you from ensuring your own health and well-being.

Formal ending. Final formulas often have a prophylactic function in order to avoid or divert evil influences. Here, the old lady as ‘giver’ of the story marks the distance between story and actual storyteller, enforcing the idea that the storyteller does not ‘own’ the stories. The ‘deceiving’ quality of narration is moreover stressed, indicating that this narrative genre belongs to the realm of fiction (as a deceiving story). However, the storytelling is attributed a form of veridicity at the beginning of the narration, when stories are presented as a form of wisdom derived from the ancestors’ knowledge, and in the aetiological ending that anchors the present world in the narrated past.

‘Deceiving’ also points to the expectation that the story constitutes a test for the audience. This seems to be confirmed in the subsequent line, when the storyteller uses the term ‘adzo’ (for ‘riddle’ and ‘riddle story’) when he indicates ‘this is the end of the story’.

The closing formula highlights the storyteller’s belonging to the (ancestors’) world of storytelling and the children’s capability to keep and tell stories (‘you have cupped ears’).

Children’s song referring to the dead frog’s story.